Ibn Khaldun’s The Muqaddimah is an incredibly masterful analysis that lies at the intersection of astronomy, history, and sociology, providing well-reasoned explanations for global difference in climate and civilization’s response and adaptation thereof. I remain astounded that this was written in 1377, and am in awe of Khaldun’s foundational theory of climate study. My favorite excerpt is his closing line of the opening discussion, “The assumption that civilization cannot exist at the equator is contradicted by continuous tradition. And God knows better!” Montesquieu’s writing is similar, yet provides a more specific explanation for the ways in which climate affects the nature and demeanor of man. Though I find the evidence supporting his theory (in the form of sheep’s tongue experimentation) a tab dubious, and his cultural stereotypes offensive, The Spirit of Laws nevertheless provides an interesting peek into climate perspectives of his era. Buffon’s writing is perhaps the most comprehensive, and centers a historical accurate recounting of man’s journey through the epochs, before giving way to his discussion of “the globe’s own heat.” I appreciate his acknowledgement of the superior nature of scientific analysis that was spurred on by sheer curiosity, as opposed to utility and power in the form of hoarded knowledge–”But unfortunately they have been lost, these high and beautiful sciences, they have come to us only as fragments too shapeless to serve us otherwise than as the knowledge of their former existence.” (But again, I must object to his cultural stereotypes, his frequent use of the word savages is appalling). Humboldt’s philosophical analysis is once again quite interdisciplinary, and is refreshingly speculative about the impact of human activity on nature and climate. He also provides a more fantastical perspective, a true appreciation and awe of nature that is somewhat lacking in the other analyses.